Artificial Intelligence-Based Quantification of Epithelial Proliferation in Mammary Glands of Rats and Oviducts of Göttingen Minipigs.

Quantitative assessment of proliferation can be an important endpoint in toxicologic pathology. Traditionally, cell proliferation is quantified by labor-intensive manual counting of positive and negative cells after immunohistochemical staining for proliferation markers (eg, Ki67, bromo-2'-deoxyuridine, or proliferating cell nuclear antigen). Currently, there is a lot of interest in replacing manual evaluation of histology end points with image analysis tools based on artificial intelligence. The aim of the present study was to explore if a commercially available image analysis software can be used to quantify epithelial proliferative activity in rat mammary gland and minipig oviduct. First, algorithms based on artificial intelligence were trained to detect epithelium in each tissue. Areas of BrdU- or Ki67-positive nuclei and negative nuclei were subsequently quantified with threshold analysis. Artificial intelligence-based and manually counted labelling indices were strongly correlated and equally well detected the estrous cycle influence on proliferation in mammary gland and oviduct epithelium, as well as the dramatically increased proliferation in rat mammary glands after treatment with estradiol and progesterone. In conclusion, quantification of epithelial proliferation in two reproductive tissues can be achieved in a reliable fashion using image analysis software based on artificial intelligence, thus avoiding time- and labor-intensive manual counting, requiring trained operators.

Formation and Glomerular Deposition of Immune Complexes in Mice Administered Human Antibodies: Evaluation of Dose, Frequency, and Biomarkers.

Administration of human protein-based drugs to animals often leads to formation of antidrug antibodies (ADAs) that may form circulating immune complexes (CICs) with the dosed protein. Circulating immune complexes can activate and bind complement (cCICs), and if large amount of CICs or cCICs is formed, the clearance mechanism potentially becomes saturated, which can lead to immune complex (IC) deposition and inflammation. To obtain a better understanding of the underlying factors, including the relationship between different dose regimes on IC formation and deposition and identification of possible biomarkers of IC deposition and IC-related pathological changes in kidneys, BALB/c and C57BL/6J mice were administered with human anti-tumor necrosis factor α (aTNFα, adalimumab) or a humanized anti-TNP (aTNP) antibody for 13 weeks. Particularly, ADA, CIC, cCIC formation, IC deposition, and glomerulonephritis were observed in C57BL/6J administered with aTNFα, whereas the immunologic response was minor in BALB/c mice administered with aTNFα and in BALB/c and C57BL/6J mice administered aTNP. Changing dose levels or increasing dosing frequency of aTNFα on top of an already-established CIC and cCIC response did not lead to substantial changes in CIC, cCIC formation, or IC deposition. Finally, no association between the presence of CICs or cCIC in plasma and glomerular IC deposition and/or glomerulonephritis was observed.

Inner histopathologic changes and disproportionate zone volumes in foetal growth plates following gestational hypoglycaemia in rats.

Maternal hypoglycaemia throughout gestation until gestation day (GD)20 delays foetal growth and skeletal development. While partially prevented by return to normoglycaemia after completed organogenesis (GD17), underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, we investigated the pathogenesis of these changes and significance of maternal hypoglycaemia extending beyond organogenesis in non-diabetic rats. Pregnant rats received insulin-infusion until GD20 or GD17, with sacrifice on GD20. Hypoglycaemia throughout gestation increased maternal corticosterone levels, which correlated with foetal levels. Growth plates displayed central histopathologic changes comprising disrupted cellular organisation, hypertrophic chondrocytes, and decreased cellular density; expression of pro-angiogenic factors, HIF-1α and VEGF-A increased in surrounding areas. Disproportionately decreased growth plate zone volumes and lower expression of the structural protein MATN-3 were seen, while bone ossification parameters were normal. Ending maternal/foetal hypoglycaemia on GD17 reduced incidence and severity of histopathologic changes and with normal growth plate volume. Compromised foetal skeletal development following maternal hypoglycaemia throughout gestation is hypothesised to result from corticosterone-induced hypoxia in growth plates, where hypoxia disrupts chondrocyte maturation and growth plate structure and volume, decreasing long bone growth. Maternal/foetal hypoglycaemia lasting only until GD17 attenuated these changes, suggesting a pivotal role of glucose in growth plate development.

Formation and glomerular deposition of immune complexes in mice administered bovine serum albumin: Evaluation of dose, frequency, and biomarkers.

In preclinical toxicity studies, species-foreign proteins administered to animals frequently leads to formation of anti-drug antibodies (ADA). Such antibodies may form circulating immune complexes (CIC) with the administered protein. These CIC can activate the classical complement pathway, thereby forming complement-bound CIC (cCIC); if large of amounts of CIC or cCIC is formed, the clearance mechanism may become saturated which potentially leads to vascular immune complex (IC) deposition and inflammation. Limited information is available on the effect of different treatment related procedures as well as biomarkers of IC-related vascular disease. In order to explore the effect of different dose regimens on IC formation and deposition, and identification of possible biomarkers of IC deposition and IC-related pathological changes, C57BL/6J and BALB/c mice were dosed subcutaneously twice weekly with bovine serum albumin (BSA) for 13 weeks without adjuvant. After 6 and 13 weeks, CIC and cCIC were detected in plasma; after 13 weeks, IC deposition was detected in kidney glomeruli. In particular immunohistochemistry double-staining was shown to be useful for detection of IC deposition. Increasing dosing frequency or changing BSA dose level on top of an already established CIC and cCIC response did not cause changes in IC deposition, but CIC and cCIC concentrations tended to decrease with increased dose level, and increased cCIC formation was observed after more frequent dosing. The presence of CIC in plasma was associated with glomerular IC deposits in the dose regimen study; however, the use of CIC or cCIC as potential biomarkers for IC deposition and IC-related pathological changes, needs to be explored further.

Generic immune complex assay for detection of murine anti-drug-antibodies in complex with human IgG.

Rapid and versatile methods are needed for evaluation of immunogenicity in early safety studies. The present work presents a generic, simple and easy to use sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for quasi-quantitative measurement of circulating immune complexes (CICs) formed by anti-drug antibodies (ADAs) in complex with human IgG in mouse plasma. The assay is suitable for evaluating the presence of in vivo formed CICs in mice exposed to human IgG antibodies independent of target and IgG subtype. The assay is established using commercially available antibodies, and calibrated using CIC mimics based on bis(sulfosuccinimidyl)suberate conjugated human and mouse IgG. The development and qualification process of the generic methodology is described and include acceptance criteria, stability, sensitivity, drug tolerance, spike recovery, precision and cut point determination. In order to demonstrate assay performance, its use is exemplified by quantifying CICs in mice administered with a fully human anti-TNF-α IgG1 antibody (adalimumab) or a humanized anti-trinitrophenol (TNP) IgG4 antibody. Results show a well-qualified reproducible assay set-up with adequate sensitivity, easy discrimination between positive and negatives and quasi-quantitative measurement of ADA-human IgG CICs in mice administered with each of two different human/humanized IgG antibodies.

MCT1 and MCT4 Expression and Lactate Flux Activity Increase During White and Brown Adipogenesis and Impact Adipocyte Metabolism.

Adipose tissue takes up glucose and releases lactate, thereby contributing significantly to systemic glucose and lactate homeostasis. This implies the necessity of upregulation of net acid and lactate flux capacity during adipocyte differentiation and function. However, the regulation of lactate- and acid/base transporters in adipocytes is poorly understood. Here, we tested the hypothesis that adipocyte thermogenesis, browning and differentiation are associated with an upregulation of plasma membrane lactate and acid/base transport capacity that in turn is important for adipocyte metabolism. The mRNA and protein levels of the lactate-H+ transporter MCT1 and the Na+,HCO3- cotransporter NBCe1 were upregulated in mouse interscapular brown and inguinal white adipose tissue upon cold induction of thermogenesis and browning. MCT1, MCT4, and NBCe1 were furthermore strongly upregulated at the mRNA and protein level upon differentiation of cultured pre-adipocytes. Adipocyte differentiation was accompanied by increased plasma membrane lactate flux capacity, which was reduced by MCT inhibition and by MCT1 knockdown. Finally, in differentiated brown adipocytes, glycolysis (assessed as ECAR), and after noradrenergic stimulation also oxidative metabolism (OCR), was decreased by MCT inhibition. We suggest that upregulation of MCT1- and MCT4-mediated lactate flux capacity and NBCe1-mediated HCO3-/pH homeostasis are important for the physiological function of mature adipocytes.

Distribution of sialic acid receptors and influenza A virus of avian and swine origin in experimentally infected pigs.

BACKGROUND: Pigs are considered susceptible to influenza A virus infections from different host origins because earlier studies have shown that they have receptors for both avian (sialic acid-alpha-2,3-terminal saccharides (SA-alpha-2,3)) and swine/human (SA-alpha-2,6) influenza viruses in the upper respiratory tract. Furthermore, experimental and natural infections in pigs have been reported with influenza A virus from avian and human sources. METHODS: This study investigated the receptor distribution in the entire respiratory tract of pigs using specific lectins Maackia Amurensis (MAA) I, and II, and Sambucus Nigra (SNA). Furthermore, the predilection sites of swine influenza virus (SIV) subtypes H1N1 and H1N2 as well as avian influenza virus (AIV) subtype H4N6 were investigated in the respiratory tract of experimentally infected pigs using immunohistochemical methods. RESULTS: SIV antigen was widely distributed in bronchi, but was also present in epithelial cells of the nose, trachea, bronchioles, and alveolar type I and II epithelial cells in severely affected animals. AIV was found in the lower respiratory tract, especially in alveolar type II epithelial cells and occasionally in bronchiolar epithelial cells. SA-alpha-2,6 was the predominant receptor in all areas of the respiratory tract with an average of 80-100% lining at the epithelial cells. On the contrary, the SA-alpha-2,3 was not present (0%) at epithelial cells of nose, trachea, and most bronchi, but was found in small amounts in bronchioles, and in alveoli reaching an average of 20-40% at the epithelial cells. Interestingly, the receptor expression of both SA-alpha-2,3 and 2,6 was markedly diminished in influenza infected areas compared to non-infected areas. CONCLUSIONS: A difference in predilection sites between SIV and AIV virus was found, and this difference was in accordance with the distribution of the SA-alpha-2,6 and SA-alpha-2,3 receptor, respectively. The results indicated that the distribution of influenza A virus receptors in pigs are similar to that of humans and therefore challenge the theory that the pig acts as a mixing vessel between human and avian influenza viruses. Furthermore, it was shown that AIV prefers to infect alveolar type II epithelial cells in pigs. This corresponds with findings in humans emphasising the resemblance between the two species.

Increased nitric oxide release and expression of endothelial and inducible nitric oxide synthases in mildly changed porcine mitral valve leaflets.

BACKGROUND AND AIM OF THE STUDY: Little is known of the local role of nitric oxide (NO) in heart valves in relation to heart valve diseases. The study aim was to examine NO release and the expression of both endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in relation to early local changes in porcine mitral valves. METHODS: A histological evaluation of mitral valve leaflets from slaughter pigs and sows was made, and the expression of eNOS and iNOS protein measured using immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, mRNA levels of eNOS and iNOS were measured using real-time RT-PCR. A calibrated NO-specific electrode was used to measure local NO release in specific regions of the anterior mitral leaflet from slaughter pigs and sows interchordally at the tip of the leaflet (region A), at the chordal insertion (region B), and at the center of the leaflet (region C). RESULTS: Leaflets from sows had an increased accumulation of mucopolysaccharides (MPS) compared to those from slaughter pigs. Furthermore, mRNA levels of eNOS and iNOS were significantly increased in region C due to very high levels of expression in some sow leaflets. NO release in the sow mitral valve leaflet was increased in regions B and C compared to that in region A. CONCLUSION: The relative distribution of NO release is increased in regions of porcine mitral valve leaflets with deposition of MPS and defraction of the valve structure, which may reflect changes in both eNOS and iNOS expression.